UNCITRAL Digest of Article 78 case law

DIGEST OF ARTICLE 78 CASE LAW

Prerequisites for entitlement to interest

1. This provision deals with the right to interest on "the price or any other sum that is in arrears", with the exception of the instance where the seller has to refund the purchase price after the contract has been avoided, in which case article 84 of the Convention applies as lex specialis.

2. Article 78 entitles to interest on "the price and any other sum that is in arrears"; according to case law, this includes damages.[1]

3. Entitlement to interest only [2] presupposes that the sum is due [3] and that the debtor failed to comply with its obligation to pay the price or any other sum by the time specified in the contract [4] or, absent such specification, by the Convention.[5] According to several courts, the entitlement to interest does not, unlike under some domestic legal regimes, depend on any formal notice to be given to the debtor.[6] As a consequence, interest starts to accrue as soon as the debtor is in arrears. As far as damages are concerned, a court stated that interest accrues from the time damages are due.[7]

4. It must be noted, however, that both an arbitral tribunal [8] and a state court [9] stated that interest does not accrue unless the creditor sent a formal notice requiring payment to the debtor in default.

5. The entitlement to interest also does not depend on the creditor being able to prove to have suffered any loss. Therefore, interest can be claimed pursuant to article 78 independently from the damage caused by the payment in arrears.[10]

6. As stated in article 78, the entitlement to interest on sums in arrears is without prejudice to any claim by the creditor for damages recoverable under article 74,[11] such as a claim for the expenses triggered by the need to have to resort to a bank loan [12] or a claim based upon the creditor not being able to invest the sum profitably.[13] This led one arbitral tribunal to state that the purpose of article 78 is to introduce the distinction between interest and damages.[14] It must be noted, that in order for a claim for damages -- in addition to a claim for interest on sums in arrears -- to be successful, all requirements set forth in article 74 must be met [15] and proved by the creditor,[16] i.e. the damaged party.

Interest rate

7. Several courts pointed out that this provision merely sets forth a general entitlement to interest;[17] it does not specify the interest rate to be applied,[18] which is why one court considered the solution contained in article 78 a "compromise".[19] According to one court [20] and an arbitral tribunal,[21] this is due to irreconcilable differences which emerged during the Vienna Diplomatic Conference.

8. The lack of a specific formula to calculate the rate of interest has led some courts to consider this matter as one governed by, albeit not expressly settled in, the Convention.[22] Other courts consider this matter one that is not governed at all by the Convention. This difference in qualifying this matter has led to diverging solutions as to the applicable interest rate, since under the Convention, the matters governed by, but not expressly settled in, the Convention have to be dealt with differently than those falling outside the Convention's scope. According to article 7(2) of the Convention, the former matters have to be settled in conformity with the general principles on which the Convention is based or, in the absence of those principles, in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law. However, if a matter is considered to fall outside the Convention's scope, it must be settled in conformity with the law applicable by virtue of the rules of private international law, without any recourse to the "general principles" of the Convention.

9. Several decisions have sought a solution on the basis of general principles on which the Convention is based. Some courts and arbitral tribunals [23] invoked article 9 of the Convention in order to solve the issue of the applicable rates of interest and determined the amount of interest payable according to the relevant trade usages. According to two arbitral awards [24] "the applicable interest rate is to be determined autonomously on the basis of the general principles underlying the Convention", on the grounds that the recourse to domestic law would lead to results contrary to those promoted by the Convention. In these cases, the issue of the interest rate was solved by resorting to the general principle of full compensation, which led to the application of the law of the creditor, since it is the creditor who has to borrow money in order to be as liquid as it would be had the debtor paid the sum it owed in due time.[25] Other tribunals simply referred to a "commercially reasonable" rate,[26] such as the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR).[27]

10. Most courts consider the issue at hand as one not governed at all by the Convention and therefore tend to apply domestic law.[28] In respect of this approach most courts applied the domestic law of a specific country by virtue of the rules of private international law of the forum [29] and others applied the domestic law of the creditor without it being necessarily the law made applicable by the rules of private international law.[30] There also are a few cases in which the rate was determined by reference to the law of the country in whose legal tender the sum of money has to be paid was (lex monetae);[31] in a few other cases, the courts applied the rate of the country in which the price had to be paid,[32] the rate applied in the debtor's country [33] or even the rate of the lex fori.[34]

11. A few courts resorted to the interest rate specified by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (art. 7.4.9).[35]

12. Despite the variety of solutions mentioned above, there is a clear tendency to apply the rate provided for by the law applicable to the contract,[36] that is, the law that would be applicable to the sales contract if it were not subject to the Convention.[37]

13. Where, however, the parties agreed upon a specific interest rate, that rate is to be applied.[38]

FOOTNOTES

* The present text was prepared using the full text of the decisions cited in the Case Law on UNCITRAL Texts (CLOUT) abstracts and other citations listed in the footnotes. The abstracts are intended to serve only as summaries of the underlying decisions and may not reflect all the points made in the digest. Readers are advised to consult the full texts of the listed court and arbitral decisions rather than relying solely on the CLOUT abstracts.

[Citations to cisgw3 case presentations have been substituted [in brackets] for the case citations provided in the UNCITRAL Digest. This substitution has been made to facilitate online access to CLOUT abstracts, original texts of court and arbitral decisions, and full text English translations of these texts (available in most but not all cases). For citations UNCITRAL had used, go to <http://www.uncitral.org/english/clout/digest_cisg_e.htm>.]

1. CLOUT case No. 328 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 21 October 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991021s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 214 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 5 February 1997; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970205s1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

2. See CLOUT case No. 252 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 21 September 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/980921s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [SWITZERLAND Bezirksgericht [District Court] Arbon 9 December 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941209s1.html>].

3. CLOUT case No. 217 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] 26 September 1997; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970926s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Nordhorn 14 June 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940614g1.html>].

4. CLOUT case No. 254 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Aargau 19 December 1997; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/971219s1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

5. For cases where the courts had to resort to the rules of the Convention, namely, article 58, to determine when the payment was due, since the parties had not agreed upon a specific time of performance, see [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Stendal 12 October 2000, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/001012g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 1 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 13 June 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/910613g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

6. For this statement in case law, see [BELGIUM Tribunal [District Court] Namur 15 January 2002, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/020115b1.html>]; [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Kortrijk 3 October 2001, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/011003b1.html>]; [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Kortrijk 4 April 2001, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/010404b1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Stendal 12 October 2000, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/001012g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 217 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] 26 September 1997; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970926s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [Appellate Court] Waadt 11 March 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960311s1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Aachen 20 July 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950720g1.html>]; [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7585 of 1992, available online at <http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/wais/db/cases2/927585i1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 166 [GERMANY Hamburg Arbitration award case of 21 March / 21 June 1996; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960321g1.html> / <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960621g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 152 [FRANCE Cour d'appel [Appellate Court] Grenoble 26 April 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950426f1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 303 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7331 of 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/947331i1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [ Lower Court] Nordhorn 14 June 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940614g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 55 [SWITZERLAND Pretore della giurisdizione [District Court] Locarno 16 December 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/911216s1.html>].

7. CLOUT case No. 328 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 21 October 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991021s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 214 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 5 February 1997; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970205s1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

8. [BULGARIA Arbitration case No. 11/1996 Bulgarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry 12 February 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/980212bu.html>].

9. See [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Zwickau 19 March 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/990319g1.html>].

10. See CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 5 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Hamburg 26 September 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900926g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 7 [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Oldenburg 24 April 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900424g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

11. This has often been emphasized in case law; see, e.g., [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Hasselt 17 June 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/980617b1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 248 [SWITZERLAND Bundesgericht [Supreme Court] 28 October 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/981028s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8962 of September 1997, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/978962i1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 195 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 21 September 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950921s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 130 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Düsseldorf 14 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940114g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 281 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Koblenz 17 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930917g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 104 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7197 of 1993; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/937197i1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 7 [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Oldenburg 24 April 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900424g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

12. See CLOUT case No. 248 [SWITZERLAND Bundesgericht [Supreme Court] 28 October 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/981028s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Koblenz 12 November 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/961112g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 195 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 21 September 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950921s1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Kassel 14 July 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940714g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

13. CLOUT case No. 7 [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Oldenburg 24 April 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900424g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

14. CLOUT case No. 301 [ICC International Court of Arbitration, case No. 7585 of 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/927585i1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

15. See CLOUT case No. 327 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 25 February 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/990225s1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Oldenburg 9 November 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941109g1.html>] where the creditor's claim for damages caused by the failure to pay was dismissed on the grounds that the creditor did not prove that it had suffered any additional loss.

16. It has often been stated that the damages referred to in article 78 have to be proved by the damaged party; see CLOUT case No. 343 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Darmstadt 9 May 2000; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/000509g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 275 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Düsseldorf 24 April 1997, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970424g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Koblenz 12 November 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/961112g1.html>]; [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Bottrop 25 June 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960625g2.html>]; CLOUT case No. 132 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Hamm 8 February 1995; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950208g3.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Kassel 14 July 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940714g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

17. See CLOUT case No. 248 [SWITZERLAND Bundesgericht [Supreme Court] 28 October 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/981028s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7585 of 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/927585i1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Aachen 20 July 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950720g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 83 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] München 2 March 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940302g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 281 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Koblenz 17 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930917g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 1 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 13 June 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/910613g1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

18. CLOUT case No. 380 [ITALY Tribunale [District Court] Pavia 29 December 1999; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991229i3.html>]; [BULGARIA Arbitration case No. 11/1996 Bulgarian Chamber of Commerce and Industry 12 February 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/980212bu.html>].

19. CLOUT case No. 55 [SWITZERLAND Pretore della giurisdizione [District Court] Locarno 16 December 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/911216s1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

20. CLOUT case No. 97 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 9 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930909s1.html>] (see full text of the decision).

21. [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8128 of 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/958128i1.html>].

22. For a case listing various criteria used in case law to determine the rate of interest, see [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7585 of 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/927585i1.html>].

23. See [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Ieper 29 January 2001, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/010129b1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 103 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 6653 of 26 March 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/936653i1.html>]; [ARGENTINA Cámara Nacional de los Apelaciones en lo Comercial [Appellate Court] 6 October 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/931014a1.html>]; [ARGENTINA Cámara Nacional de los Apelaciones en lo Comercial [Appellate Court] 23 October 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases//911023a1.html>].

24. See CLOUT cases Nos. 93 [AUSTRIA Vienna Arbitration Award, case No. SCH-4366 of 15 June 1994; available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940615a3.html>] and 94 [AUSTRIA Vienna Arbitration Award, case No. SCH-4318 of 15 June 1994; available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940615a4.html>] (see full text of the decisions).

25. For a similar solution, that is, for an arbitral award basing its decision on the argument that the interest rate of the country in which the damage occurred, (the country in which the creditor has its place of business) has to apply, see also CLOUT case no. 303 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7331 of 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/947331i1.html>].

26. See [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8769 of December 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/968769i1.html>].

27. See [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8908 of September 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/988908i1.html>]; see also CLOUT case No. 103 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 6653 of 26 March 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/936653i1.html>]; note that this arbitral award was later annulled on the grounds that international trade usages do not provide appropriate rules to determine the applicable interest rate; see [FRANCE Cour d'appel [Appellate Court] Paris 6 April 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950406f1.html>].

28. Note that some courts did not decide which law was applicable; this was possible, since all the countries involved in the particular dispute provided for either the same rate of interest (see, for example, CLOUT case No. 84 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 20 April 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940420g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 56 [SWITZERLAND Pretore della giurisdizione [District Court] Locarno 27 April 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/920427s1.html>] (see full text of the decision)) or an interest rate higher than the one claimed by the plaintiff see [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Dresden 27 December 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991227g1.html>].

29. See [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Stendal 12 October 2000, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/001012g1.html>]; [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Stuttgart 28 February 2000, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/000228g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 380 [ITALY Tribunale [District Court] Pavia 29 December 1999; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991229i3.html>]; [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 9187 of June 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/999187i1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 328 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 21 October 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/991021s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 327 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 25 February 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/990225s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 377 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Flensburg 24 March 1999, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/990324g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 248 [SWITZERLAND Bundesgericht [Supreme Court] 28 October 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/981028s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 282 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Koblenz 31 January 1997, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/970131g1.html>]; [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8611 of 23 January 1997, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/978611i1.html>] (stating that the relevant interest rate is either that of the lex contractus or, in exceptional cases, that of the lex monetae); CLOUT case No. 376 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Bielefeld 2 August 1996; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960802g1.html>]; [SWITZERLAND Tribunal [District Court] Glane 20 May 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960520s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 166 [GERMANY Hamburg Arbitration award case of 21 March / 21 June 1996; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960321g1.html> / <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960621g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 335 [SWITZERLAND Tribunale d'appello [Appellate Court] Lugano 12 February 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960212s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Augsburg 29 January 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960129g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 330 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] St. Gallen 5 December 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/951205s1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Kehl 6 October 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/951006g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 195 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 21 September 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950921s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 228 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Rostock 27 July 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950727g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Aachen 20 July 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950720g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Kassel 22 June 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950622g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 136 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Celle 24 May 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950524g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 410 [GERMANY Landgericht [Lower Court] Alsfeld 12 May 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950512g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Landshut 5 April 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950405g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] München 20 March 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950320g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Oldenburg 15 February 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950215g2.html>]; CLOUT case No. 132 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Hamm 8 February 1995; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950208g3.html>]; CLOUT case No. 300 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7565 of 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/947565i1.html>]; [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 15 December 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941215s1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Oldenburg 9 November 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941109g1.html>]; [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Zug 1 September 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940901s1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Düsseldorf 25 August 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940825g1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Giessen 5 July 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940705g1.html>]; [NETHERLANDS Rechtbank [District Court] Amsterdam 15 June 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940615n1.html>]; [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Nordhorn 14 June 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940614g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 83 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] München 2 March 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940302g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 82 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Düsseldorf 10 February 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940210g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 81 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Düsseldorf 10 February 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940210g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 80 [GERMANY Kammergericht [Appellate Court] Berlin 24 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940124g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 79 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 18 January 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940118g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 100 [NETHERLANDS Rechtbank [District Court] Arnhem 30 December 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/931230n1.html>]; [SWITZERLAND Tribunal Cantonal [Appellate Court] Vaud 6 December 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/931206s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 281 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Koblenz 17 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930917g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 97 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 9 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930909s1.html>]; [NETHERLANDS Rechtbank [District Court] Roermond 6 May 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930506n1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Verden 8 February 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930208g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 95 [SWITZERLAND Zivilgericht [Civil Court] Basel-Stadt 21 December 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/921221s1.html>]; [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Zweibrücken 14 October 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/921014g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 227 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Hamm 22 September 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/920922g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Heidelberg 3 July 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/920703g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 55 [SWITZERLAND Pretore della giurisdizione [District Court] Locarno 16 December 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/911216s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 1 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Frankfurt 13 June 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/910613g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 5 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Hamburg 26 September 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900926g1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 7 [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Oldenburg 24 April 1990, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/900424g1.html>].

30. Several court decisions referred to the domestic law of the creditor as the law applicable, independently of whether the rules of private international law made that law applicable; see [SWITZERLAND Bezirksgericht [District Court] Arbon 9 December 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941209s1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 6 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Frankfurt 16 September 1991, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/910916g1.html>] (see full text of the decision); CLOUT case No. 4 [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Stuttgart 31 August 1989, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/890831g1.html>]; for a criticism of the latter decision by a court, see [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Kassel 22 June 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950622g1.html>];.

31. See [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Ieper 18 February 2002, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/020218b1..html>]; [BELGIUM Rechtbank [District Court] Veurne 25 April 2001, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/010425b1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 164 [HUNGARY Budapest Arbitration Award case No. Vb 94131 of 5 December 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/951205h1.html>]; [HUNGARY Budapest Arbitration Award case No. Vb 94124 of 17 November 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/951117h1.html>].

32. See CLOUT case No. 220 [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [District Court] Nidwalden 3 December 1997, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/971203s1.html>]; [NETHERLANDS Rechtbank [District Court] Almelo 9 August 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950809n1.html>]; CLOUT case No. 26 [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 7153 of 1992, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/927153i1.html>].

33. See [SWITZERLAND Kantonsgericht [Appellate Court] Waadt 11 March 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/960311s2.html>].

34. CLOUT case No. 85 [UNITED STATES Delchi Carrier v. Rotorex Federal District Court [New York] 9 September 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940909u1.html>].

35. See [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8769 of December 1996, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/968769i1.html>]; [ICC Court of Arbitration, case No. 8128 of 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/958128i1.html>]; CLOUT cases Nos. 93 [AUSTRIA Vienna Arbitration Award case No. SCH-4336 of 15 June 1994; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940615a3.html>] and 94 [AUSTRIA Vienna Arbitration Award, case No. SCH-4318 of 15 June 1994; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940615a4.html>].

36. Some courts referred to this solution as a unanimous one; see CLOUT case No. 132 [GERMANY Oberlandesgericht [Appellate Court] Hamm 8 February 1995; available at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950208g3.html>]; CLOUT case No. 97 [SWITZERLAND Handelsgericht [Commercial Court] Zürich 9 September 1993, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/930909s1.html>]. In the light of the remarks in the text, it is apparent that, although this solution is the prevailing one, it has not been unanimously accepted.

37. For case law stating the same, see [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Aachen 20 July 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950720g1.html>]; [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Riedlingen 21 October 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/941021g1.html>]; [GERMANY Amtsgericht [Lower Court] Nordhorn 14 June 1994, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/940614g1.html>].

38. See [BELGIUM Hof van beroep [Appellate Court] Antwerp 4 November 1998, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/981104b1.html>]; [GERMANY Landgericht [District Court] Kassel 22 June 1995, available online at <http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cases/950622g1.html>].